Migration, Motherhood, and Margins: The Gendered Cost of Labor Migration in Nepal

By Niranjan Parajuli 

Labor migration—largely male-dominated—forms a cornerstone of Nepal’s economic and social structure, profoundly reshaping households in both visible and invisible ways. In the last fiscal year 2023/24, Nepal issued over 1.2 million labor permits, with approximately 93.5% granted to men and only 6.5% to women, highlighting the deeply gendered nature of migration (Department of Foreign Employment, 2024).

In the last fiscal year 2023/24, Nepal issued over 1.2 million labor permits, with approximately 93.5% granted to men and only 6.5% to women, highlighting the deeply gendered nature of migration

Most of these migrants are destined for the Gulf countries, Malaysia, and India, generating remittances that contribute nearly 25% of Nepal’s GDP (World Bank, 2024). While these remittances have lifted many families out of poverty, the social and emotional costs—particularly on women, children, and elderly family members left behind—remain underexamined.

This article explores how labor migration is transforming household dynamics in Nepal, focusing on the expanded roles women assume, the pressures they face, and the broader social implications.

 

Redefining Gender Roles and Household Power Structures

The pronounced gender imbalance in labor migration is subtly shifting patriarchal norms in both rural and urban Nepal. In the absence of male family members, women—especially wives and daughters-in-law—often take on new responsibilities, managing finances, farms, households, and even community matters.

In the absence of male family members, women—especially wives and daughters-in-law—often take on new responsibilities, managing finances, farms, households, and even community matters

Yet this shift in duties does not always equate to a shift in decision-making authority. Many women report making essential day-to-day decisions, but still deferring to their migrant husbands for final approval, particularly in financial matters (Adhikari & Hobley, 2021).

These experiences are not uniform. Women's autonomy is shaped by caste, geography, and class. In upper-caste households, social scrutiny and traditional expectations continue to constrain female empowerment. In contrast, Dalit and Janajati women may experience more flexibility in their roles, though they face other forms of marginalization and exclusion.

In addition, women perform intense emotional labor to maintain family cohesion across vast distances. Coordinating long-distance communication, managing household finances, ensuring children's education and well-being, and caring for elders—all while coping with social expectations and time zone differences—often lead to chronic stress, exhaustion, and burnout. This invisible labor is rarely acknowledged or supported by existing social or institutional systems.

 

Solo Parenting and Strained Decision-Making

With more than a million Nepali men migrating annually, left-behind mothers often bear the full burden of parenting. Recent studies show that women raising children alone face heightened stress around discipline, schooling, and emotional care (Kunwar, 2022). They must navigate educational institutions, manage adolescent behavior, and make critical life decisions in the absence of paternal support.

With more than a million Nepali men migrating annually, left-behind mothers often bear the full burden of parenting. Recent studies show that women raising children alone face heightened stress around discipline, schooling, and emotional care

Children in migrant households frequently report higher levels of psychological distress, including anxiety and loneliness—particularly when communication with migrant fathers is irregular or limited. While some women gain decision-making power in areas like education and healthcare, they are still expected to consult their husbands for major financial choices. In rural regions, many mothers rely on extended family or informal support networks, though access to such help varies widely. At the same time, increased public visibility and decision-making roles often expose these women to community judgment and gendered scrutiny.

 

Intergenerational Responsibilities and Eldercare

The migration of adult sons also redistributes caregiving duties within the joint family system. Daughters-in-law are commonly expected to care for elderly in-laws, in addition to their expanding roles as de facto household heads.

A 2023 report by HelpAge International and Ageing Nepal revealed that many elderly parents of migrant workers experience emotional neglect and financial insecurity. Additional studies have found that older adults in migrant households are more likely to suffer from mental health challenges such as anxiety and depression (Kharel et al., 2021).

A 2023 report by HelpAge International and Ageing Nepal revealed that many elderly parents of migrant workers experience emotional neglect and financial insecurity

The absence of sons is statistically linked to increased emotional stress among elderly parents (p = 0.016), underscoring the psychological toll of labor migration on older generations.

These shifts sometimes result in increased agency for women, particularly in lower-caste households where traditional power structures are less rigid. However, in upper-caste families, deeply embedded hierarchies often persist, leading to intergenerational tensions and reinforcing patriarchal norms.

 

Migration, Remittances, and Uneven Empowerment

Remittances have undeniably improved material conditions in many migrant-sending households, enabling better housing, education, and healthcare. Between 2015 and 2023, remittances significantly contributed to poverty reduction in many regions of Nepal (World Bank, 2024).

But the transformative potential of migration is frequently constrained by gender norms. Financial control often remains with male migrants, even while women manage the day-to-day household economy in their absence.

In rural areas, many women lack access to financial literacy programs, banking services, or institutional support to use remittances productively. A 2023 study by the International Organisation for Migration found that while migration has empowered some women—particularly in Hill regions where social structures are more flexible—this empowerment remains uneven and context-dependent.

In rural areas, many women lack access to financial literacy programs, banking services, or institutional support to use remittances productively

 

Toward Holistic Migration Policy

Nepal’s labor migration continues to drive macroeconomic growth, but it also creates substantial gendered and emotional burdens for the families left behind. Women are thrust into leadership roles as heads of households and primary caregivers, yet are frequently constrained by rigid social norms and inadequate institutional support. Children and elderly parents suffer from emotional voids and heightened uncertainty in the absence of male relatives.

Children and elderly parents suffer from emotional voids and heightened uncertainty in the absence of male relatives

To address these challenges, migration policy must go beyond economic metrics like remittance volume. It must engage with the lived realities of transnational families. Expanding financial literacy programs for women, improving mental health support for children and elderly parents, and investing in eldercare infrastructure are essential steps.

Only through a holistic, gender-sensitive approach can the benefits of labor migration translate into equitable and sustainable social outcomes for Nepali households.

[The author is currently working as a Secretariat at AI-Sarosh (A South-Asian Regional Hub for Sexual, Reproductive, Maternal and Mental Health)]